Crimean Mountain Beech Forest
These forests may be dominated by either Fagus moesiaca or the endemic Fagus taurica (Fagaceae). On northern slopes of the southernmost mountain range of the Crimean Peninsula at altitudes ranging from 600-1100 m where the climate is cool with moderate precipitation Fagus moesiaca can form almost pure stands but is occasionally mixed with Carpinus betulus, Fraxinus excelsior, Tilia cordata and Ulmus glabra. The poorly developed understorey may include Euonymus latifolius and Taxus baccata. The herb layer, on the other hand, is very distinct with species such as Cyclamen coum, Nectaroscordum siculum ssp. bulgaricum, Lathyrus rotundifolius, Vincetoxicum scandens and the endemic or near endemic Corydalis paczoskii (Fumariaceae) and Symphytum tauricum (Boraginaceae). On moist, shady slopes, mainly in ravines, forests of Fagus taurica often predominate. These are well developed, for example, in the deep gorge of the Avinda above Gurzuf and on the slopes of the Urag Ridge-Chamny-Burun. Examples also occur above Alupka, Gurzuf, Simeiz and Yalta. Asssociated trees may include Carpinus betulus, Fraxinus excelsior, Taxus buccata and the Crimean endemic Acer steveni (Aceraceae).
Crimean Juniper Forest
These once extensive forests are now confined to just a few places. In South Crimea stands can be found in coastal areas such as the Laspa Valley and Cape Martyan. They are typically mixed juniper-oak forests dominated by Juniperus excelsa and Quercus pubescens. Other trees may include Arbutus andrachne, Pinus pallasiana and Pistacia mutica. Arbutus andrachne, the strawberry tree, is mainly confined to land encompassing the Eastern Mediterranean. These Crimean forests rarely exceed about 10 m in height, but some of the junipers are quite ancient with certain specimens estimated to be over 500 years old. Many of the forests form open stands providing habitat for light-loving species at ground level, while more shade tolerant and moisture loving species tend to be confined to places where tree cover and undergrowth is thicker. The undergrowth may form two layers with an upper layer consisting of species such as Cornus mas, Coronilla emeroides, Pallurus spina-christa, Rosa dumetorum the endemic Colutea cilicica (Fabaceae) and a lower layer comprising species such as Jasminum fruticans, Ruscus ponticus and the endemic Cistus tauricus (Cistaceae). At ground level, the herbaceous layer typically includes grasses like Agropyron glaucum, Brachypodium rupestris, Lasiagrostis bromoides, Poa sterilis and a large variety of forbs and undershubs such as Anthemis tinctoria, Asperula galioides, Dorycnium intermedium, Erysimum cuspidatum, Fumana procumbens, Helianthemum chamaecistis, Jurinea arachnoides, Teucrium polium, Veronica multifida and the endemic or near endemic Dictamus gymnostylis (Rutaceae), Galium tauricum (Rubiaceae) and Salvia grandiflora (Lamiaceae). In spring the herbaceous cover is augmented by a variety of early flowering species particularly geophytes like Muscari racemosum, Ornithogalum refractum, O. woronowii and orchids like Anacamptis pyramidalis, Ophrys oestrifera, Orchis picta, O. simia together with the rare and endemic Crimean orchid (Comperia taurica) and Ophrys taurica (Orchidaceae). Other Crimean endemics associated with these forest include shrub Sorbus taurica (Rosaceae) and the herbaceous perennials Crocus angustifolia (Iridaceae), Lathyrus digitatus (Fabaceae) and Scutellaria pallida (Lamiaceae).
Crimean Oak (Hornbean) Forest
Oak forests can be found, for example, on gently sloping regions of the Cape Martyan Reserve. The first story largely consists of Quercus pubescens (downy oak), which can reach heights of 12 m or so. Second story trees include scattered Arbustus andrachne, Juniperus excela and Pinus pallasiana, while a third story consists of an admixture of Acer campestris, Carpinus orientalis (hornbean) and Cornus mas. Typical undergrowth species are Cotinus coggygria and Pyracanthus coccinea. At ground level, the herbaceous layer is often dominated by the grass Brachypodium rupestris, and species characteristic of shady forests like Viola siebeana, V. scotophylla and Platanthera chlorantha. In spring though, many of the clearing come alive with magnificent displays of the golden-yellow flowers of Crocus susianus. Crimean endemic species associated with these oak forests include the biennial Hesperis steveniana (Brassicaceae), the perennials Anthemis dubia (Asteraceae) and Lathyrus digitatus (Fabaceae) and the shrubs Genista depressa (Fabaceae) and Sorbus taurica (Rosaceae). On the summit of coastal mountains (Ayu-Dag, Kastel) at altitudes of over 500 m Quercus pubescens is replaced by Quercus sessiliflora together with the two endemic limes Tilia caucasica and T. dasystyla (Tiliaceae).
Crimean Pine Forest
Belts of non-endemic Crimean pine (Pinus nigra subsp. pallasiana) can be found from Cape Aya eastward almost to the mountains at Kastel. Isolated stands are also found in Balaclava, and in the eastern parts of South Crimea as far as the mountains of Echki-Dag and on the first ridge of the Crimean Mountains. It is related to a series of mountain ‘black’ pine species occurring in the Mediterranean and bordering southern Europe from the Pyrenees to Asia Minor. In the Crimea it is thought to have been much more widespread in the recent past but has been displaced by expanding deciduous trees, particularly Quercus sessiliflora, but parts have also been cleared by man. To make matters worse it is also susceptible to the scale insect Leucaspis pusilla. At low altitudes Crimean pine is the main upper story species with a second story of mainly Quercus pubescens. A third story mainly comprises Juniperus excelsa. However, at high altitudes these latter two species disappear and Crimean pine can form almost pure stands. This is the case, for example, on the slopes above Yalta. In other locations species such as Carpinus betulus, Pinus communis, Sorbus domestica, Quercus sessiliflora, Ulmus foliacea and the Crimean endemic Acer steveni (Aceraceae) may be present. Typical herbaceous species, particularly in the moist upland stands, include Euphorbia amygdaloides, Primula acualis, the attractive violet-coloured Pulsatilla halleri and rose-coloured Centaurea declinata, several umbelliferas such as Dana cornubiensis, Laser trilobium and Laserpitium hispidum and the endemic or near endemic Paeonia triternata (Paeoniaceae). In spring the endemic geophyte Galanthus plicatus (Alliaceae) becomes conspicuous in forest clearings. Other crimean endemics associated with these pine forests include the shrub Cytisus wulffii (Fabaceae) and the umbilifer Pseucedanum tauricum (Apiaceae).
Crimean Pitsunda Pine Forest
The most extensive stands of the endemic or near endemic Pitsunda Pine (Pinus brutia subsp. pityusa) are found on Pitsunda Cape. It is a relict of the ancient Tertiary flora of the Eastern Mediterranean particularly from around the Euxine zone (see Euxine BioProvince). Fossilized cones of the species have been found in Tertiary sediments on the Kerch Peninsula. A distinguishing feature of the species is its extremely long pine needles. Trees can reach heights of up to 35 m and have a trunk diameter of 2 m. Associated trees may include Carpinus betulus and Quercus pubescens,and towards the Cape Aya it is accompanied by Arbutus andrachne and the endemic shrub Cistus tauricus (Cistaceae).
Crimean Maquis (shiblyak)
Analogous to Mediterranean maquis this vegetation is largely dominated by shrubby, pubescent oak Quercus pubescens together with Crataegus pentagyna, Carpinus orientalis, Paliurus spina-christi and Pyracantha coccinea. It forms a prickly thicket ranging from 2-4 m in height. However, like Mediterranean maquis it is also considered to be a disclimax or disturbed climax resulting from human activity that has replaced Mediterranean oak and in dryer areas Pistacia woodland.
Crimean Phrygana
Phrygana is a Mediterranean term for open, dwarf scrub largely dominated by cushion shaped, aromatic, unpalatable, spiny shrubs that tend to be thermophilic and draught resistant. In the Crimea analogous vegetation can be found. In southeastern regions, for example, there are dwarf, thorny shrublands, which include the Crimean endemics Astragalus arnacantha (Fabaceae) and Onosma polyphyllum (Boraginaceae). Other species commonly found in Crimean phrygana include Asphodeline lutea and the endemic or near endemic Asphodeline taurica (Liliaceae).
Crimean Steppe
Steppe vegetation used to cover some two-thirds of the Crimean Peninsula, and was very extensive in the Sudak-Feodosia region where it alternated with oak forest. The vegetation is largely characterized by tufted fescue and feather grasses with Stipa capillata often dominant as it is in steppe vegetation over much of Eurasia. However, compared with more northern steppe there tends to be fewer forbs but increased number of ephemers and ephemeroids. This mainly reflects the drier conditions and different soils. Other characteristic grasses include Melica altissima, Stipa lessingiana, S. pulcherrima and the Ukrainean endemic Stipa ucrainica (Poaceae). The many Crimean endemic or near endemic steppe species include annuals such as Lappula heteracantha (Boraginaceae), Scandix falcata (Apiaceae), biennials such as Erysimum leptostylum (Brassicaceae), Isatis taurica (Brassicaceae), perennials such as Alcea taurica (Malvaceae) Alyssum trichostachyum (Brassiaceae), Astragalus corniculatus, Astragalus pubiflorus, Astragalus reduneus, Astragalus tauricus (Fabaceae), Bellevalia sarmatica (Liliaceae), Convolvulus sericocephalus (Convolulaceae), Crambe aspera, Crambe grandiflora (Brassicaceae), Delphinium pallasii (Ranunculaceae), Dianthus pallidiflorus (Caryophyllaceae), Euphorbia leptocaula, Euphorbia stepposa (Euphorbiaceae), Galium xeroticum (Rubiaceae), Hyacintella pallasiana Crimea lily (Hyacinthaceae), Muretia lutea (Apiaceae), Onobrychis inermis (Fabaceae), Polygonum novo-ascanicum (Polygonaceae), Potentilla collieri (Rosaceae), Seseli arenarium (Poaceae), Tanacetum paczoskii (Asteraceae), Thymus dzevanovskyi (Lamiaceae) Trinia stankovii (Apiaceae), and shrubs such as Salvia grandiflora (Lamiaceae), Scutellaria taurica (Lamiaceae), Sideritis marschalliana, Sideritis taurica (Lamiaceae), Thymus callieri, Thymus eupatoriensis, Thymus callieri and Thymus eupatoriensis (Lamiaceae).
Crimean Crag Vegetation
The fissures on crags are often colonised by small trees. In South Crimea these include Arbutus andrachne, Juniperus excelsa and Pinus nigra ssp. pallasiana. Where there is shade and moisture the attractive, spring flowering Arabis caucasica and the endemic Saxifraga irigua (Saxifragaceae) may be found together with various small ferns like Asplenium trichomanes, A. ruta-muraria and Cystopteres fragilis. On steep slopes one may meet the stunning flowers of Asphodeline lutea, and on crags of relatively high elevation the endemic umbilifer Seseli gummiferum (Apiaceae).
Crimean Lepidium crassifolia Pioneer Mud Volcano Vegetation
Vegetation characterized by the herbaceous Lepidium crassifolia is typically found on fairly fresh flows of volcanic material from Bulganak type volcanic features. These are fields of volcanoes and griffin craters with numerous dispersed eruption centers, which regularly discharge gas and small quantities of mud but never undergo catastrophic eruptions. The vegetation can be divided onto two sub-associations. Erupted material contains high levels of water-soluble salts and toxic substances with a pH of about 10.4. However, this rapidly undergoes desalination and when the pH reaches about 10.14 the first pioneer plants of Lepidium crassifolia can become established. The only other plants that may be present in this early formation include scattered Camphorosma monspeliaca and Suaeda confusa. With further desalination and when the pH reaches about 9.8 a second stage in the succession develops characterised by Petrosimonia oppositifolia, Puccinellia fominii and Lepidium crassifolia. This sub-association can be seen, for example, around griffins surrounding crater lakes. The vegetation is more diverse and may include a number of associates such as Artemisia santonica, Cerastium glutinosum, Hamilione verrucifera, Limonium gmelenii, Poa bulbosa and Suaeda prostrata.
Crimean Petrosimonia brachiata-Artemisia santonica Mud Volcano Vegetation
Vegetation characterized by Petrosimonia brachiata and Artemisia santonica is typically associated with Djau-Tepé and Siuyurtash type volcanic structure. The former have craters up to 40 m in diameter, which undergo catastrophic eruptions every 50 years or so and can produce considerable quantities of volcanic mud, while Siuyurtash structures are griffin fields that have become largely inactive but still occasionally produce gas an quantities of liquid mud. These two volcanic landscapes support different sub-associations. On recent flows from Djau-Tepé type volcanic structures the pioneer vegetation is characterized by the presence of Artemisia calotheca and A. tatarica. The first colonists usually become established about 3-4 year after an eruption when leaching has partially desalinated the upper few centimeters of volcanic material. Floristic analysis shows that this pioneer community is clearly dominated by species of the Chenopodiaceae family, which in addition to species of Atriplex also includes Salsola soda, S. tragus, Suaeda confusa and S. prostrata. In areas typified by Siuyurtash formations Puccinellia fomini becomes the main species. The volcanic mud in these areas is often impregnated with petroleum products, which limits infiltration by rainwater and so slows down the desalination process. This restricts the numbers of species that can tolerate these areas. Apart from Artemisia santonica and Petrosimonia brachiata there are usually just a few scattered specimens of Camphorosma monspeliaca, Limonium gmelenii, Salsola soda, Suaeda confusa and S. prostrata. Among other species scattered throughout Petrosimonia brachiata – Artemisia santonica vegetation is the endemic or near endemic Goniolimon tataricum (Plumbaginaceae).
Crimean Artemisia taurica-Valeriana tuberosa Mud Volcano Vegetation
This vegetation is found in the lowest parts of the Bulganak and Tarkhan volcanic fields where water-soluble salts accumulate. The soil is, therefore, distinctly alkaline with high levels of calcium, magnesium and soda. Other characteristic species include Agropyrum desertorum, Cerastium tauricum, Halimione verrucifera, Holosteum umbellatum, Limonium mejeri, Puccinellia fominii and Scorzonera laciniata. Possibly less common are Chamomilla tzvelevii, Hordeum geniculatum, Muscarima muscari, Polygonum salsugineum, Ranunculus pedatus and Taraxacum bessarabicum.
Crimean Eremopyron orientale Mud Volcano Vegetation
Vegetation characterized by Eremopyron orientale typically occurs on mud-volcanic formations of the Djau-Tepé type (for more details see the account for the Petrosimonia brachiata – Artemisia santonica Mud Volcano Vegetation). Two sub-associations are recognized. The typical one in which Eremopyron orientale is most common forms on mud flows that do not exceed more than about 70 years of age, whereas on older species like Ferula orientale together with Cerastium tauricum, Erophila verna and Holosteum umbellatum become characteristic. However, a number of other species can be found associated with both of these sub-associations some of which include Artemisia santonica, Atriplex colotheca, Camphorosma monspeliaca, Cardaria draba, Festuca valesiaca ssp. pseudodalmatica, Puccinellia fominii, Scorzonera lacinata, Ventenata dubia and so on.
Crimean Meliotus neopolitanus-Elytrigia repens Mud Volcano Vegetation
Volcanic terrains stressed by erosion provide the main habitat for this vegetation. Three sub-associations are recognized. The typical one with few species occurs on talwegs (the lowest point) of gorges and ravines radially distributed down old and ancient slopes of Djau-Tepé type volcanic landscapes (for more details see the account for the Petrosimonia brachiata – Artemisia santonica Mud Volcano Vegetation). Periodic drainage causes erosion and the accumulation of water-soluble salts from the upper volcanic material. Consequently species diversity is relatively low. On the slopes of these gorges and ravines a sub-association occurs in which Alopecurus myosuroides becomes one of the more constant species, while on the deluvio-proluvial tails at the foot of these volcanoes Serratula erucifolia becomes one of the more constant species of the third sub-association. Both of these subassociations support a relatively rich diversity of species including Ballota nigra, Consolida paniculata, Palimba salsa, Ranunculus oxyspermum and the endemic or near endemic Allium albiflorum (Alliaceae), Linum euxinum (Linaceae) and Malabajla graveolens (family?).
Crimean Ferula orientalis-Artemsia taurica Climax Mud Volcano Vegetation
This association is considered to be the climax vegetation of old and ancient mud-volcanic deposits of the Kerch Peninsula. Other characteristic species include Agopyron desertorum, Critaria villosa, Erophila verna, Festuca valesiaca, Galium tenuisissimum, Koeleria cristata, Limonium mejeri, Linum euxinum, Myosotis ramosissima, Poa bulbosa, Sceleranthus polycarpus, Scorzonera laciniata, Stipa capillata, Trifolium parviflorum and Ventenata dubia.
Further information required.
References
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Moisienko, I., Górski, P. & Boiko, P. 2002. Contribution to the flora of steppes of the Black Sea region (Ukraine). Roczniki Akademii Rolniczej Poznaniu, CCCXLVII: 123-134.
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