Egyptian-Arabian Sand Desert Vegetation
This BioProvince takes in the great sand deserts of the Arabian Peninsula including Rub’ al Khali, the Great Nafud, and the crescent-shaped Dahna desert. The Rub’al Khali is one of the driest regions of Arabia with an annual rainfall of just 35 mm or so. It is characterized by massive sand dunes or sand mountains, which are thought to be a relict of early more energetic wind regimes but are now mostly stable. As a result of the extreme dryness there are no annual species here and large parts of the area are dominated by the endemic shrub Calligonum crinatum subsp. arabicum (Polygonaceae), a shrubland known locally as abal. In central and northeastern parts the endemic shrub Cornulaca arabica (Chenopodiaceae) becomes more conspicuous. This saltbush shrubland is known locally as hadh and covers thousands of square kilometers. Other species characteristic of this desert includes Cyperus conglomeratus, Dipterygium glaucum and the two endemic species Limeum arabicum (Molluginaceae) and Tribulus arabicus (Zygophyllaceae). The dominant shrubs of the Dahna and Great Hafud are Artemisia monosperma and Calligonum comosum (abal-adhir shrubland). These are usually widely spaced and often intermixed with tussocks of perennial grasses such as Centropodia forsskolii and Stipagrostis drarii, and broadly equates to the so-called Central Arabian Red Sand Vegetation. Another important shrub is Haloxylon persicum, and in contrast to the Rud’ al Khali, there is a relatively high proportion of annual species. These tend to be a feature of springtime flushes following favourable rain. Typical species include Anthemis deserti, Arnebia decumbens, Astragalus hauarensis, Cutandia memphitica, Emex spinosa, Eremobium aegyptiacum, Hippocretis bicontorta, Ifloga spicata, Launaea capitata, Lotononia platycarpa, Neurada procumbens, Plantago boissieri, Rumex pictus, Silene villosa and the endemic Paronychia arabica (Caryophyllaceae) and Schimpera arabica (Brassicaceae). On the sand-drifts in Wadi Anqabya south of the Cairo-Suez road a different psammophytic community can be found. Here the perennials Aristida brachypoda and Haloxylon salicornicum dominate together with varying amounts of Lasiurus hirsutes. Other species include Anthemus deserti, Centaurea aegyptiaca, Cotula cinerea, Diplotaxis harra, Fagonia glutinosa, Farsetia aegyptia, Gypsophila rokeyeka, Linaria haelava, Matthiola livida, Mesembryanthemum forskahler, Pancratium sickenbergeri, Paranychia lenticulata, Polycarpon arabicum and Silene villosa. Also found here is the remarkable annual, yellow-flowered bellflower Campanula suphurea.
Egyptian-Arabian Varthemia montana Rock and Cliff Vegetation
Vegetation usually dominated by Varthemia montana is characteristic of bare limestone rocks and cliffs in desert areas such as the Edom, Negev, Sinai and the South Galâla plateau. In the latter Juniperus phoenica may become co-dominant, while in other places other species become locally dominant. For example, Stachys aegyptiaca is locally dominant in the central Negev and Origanum dayi in the Judean Desert. In addition to the true lithophytes this vegetation also includes many chasmophytes. Other characteristic species include Astragalus amalecitanus, Ballota undulata, Centaurea eryngioides, Convolvulus oleifolius, Fumana thymifolia, Helianthemum ventosa, Limonium pruinosum, Parietaria alsinifolia, Phagnalon rupestre, Rusularia lineata, and the endemic or near endemic Ballota kaiseri (Lamiaceae), Paronychia sinaica (Caryophyllaceae) and Phagnolon sinaicum (Asteraceae). Other less common endemic or near endemic species includes Dianthus sinaicus (Caryophyllaceae), Micromeria sinaica (Lamiaceae), Pterocephalus arabicus (Dipsacaceae) and Zygophyllum dumosum (Zygophyllaceae). On the South Galâla plateau Varthemia montane is accompanied by Artemisia herba-alba and Noaea mucronata as the characteristic species of crevices on north facing limestone slopes. Associates include Atraphaxis billardieri, Centaurea eryngioides, Ephedra alte, Pyrethrum santolinoides, Rhamnus disperma, the endemic Ballota kaiseri (Lamiaceae) and local endemic Dianthus guessfeldtianus (Caryophyllaceae).
Egyptian-Arabian Anabasis articulata Desert Shrubland
Shrublands usually dominated by Anabasis articulata occupy a variety of desert types including hammadas (i.e. landforms made up of rolling or sloping plateaus or hillsides covered with stones of various sizes) and gravel substrates. They occupy some of the most extreme deserts in the BioProvince where annual rainfall rarely exceeds 100 mm and can be found, for example, in the Sinai, Judean, Negev and Edom deserts. Other locally dominant or sub-dominant species include Cornulaca monacantha, Gymnocarpus decander, Halogeton alopecuroides, Hammada scoparia, Notoceras bicorne, Salsola pachoi, Stipa obtusa and Thymelaea hirsuta. Associated endemic or near endemic species include Astragalus spinosa (Fabaceae), Fagonia sinaica (Zygophyllaceae), Hammada negevensis (Chenopodiaceae), Verbascum letourneuxii (Scrophulariaceae) and Zilla spinosa (Brassicaceae).
Egyptian-Arabian Zygophyllum dumosum Desert Shrubland
These shrublands are characteristic of various hammada type terrains particularly in the mountainous parts of the Sinai, the Negev and also parts of the Judean Desert. It may be found on hammada with a fairly well developed layer of chalky-loamy soil beneath a covering of flint-stones or on hammada with rocky outcrops and poor soil. In addition to the endemic Zygophyllum dumosum (Zygophyllaceae) other characteristic species include Allium desertorum, Asparagus stipularis, Astractylis phaeolepis, Bellevalia desertorum, Colchicum tunicatum, Diplotaxis acris, Fagonia mollis, Farsetia aegyptiaca, Lappula spinocarpos, Muscari inconstrictum, Odontospermum pygmaeum, Ranunculus asiaticus var. tenuilobus, Scabiosa aucheri, Scilla hanburyi, Tetrapogon villosus, while some of the associated endemic or near endemic taxa are Plantago phaeostoma (Plantaginaceae), Reaumuria hirtella var. palestina (Tamaricaceae) and Reseda stenostachya (Resedaceae).
Egyptian-Arabian Ziziphus nummularia Desert Shrubland
Vegetation dominated Ziziphus nummularia is characteristic of fine textured soils (rodat) and can be seen, for example, in north and central Qatar. Other commonly associated perennials include Acacia tortilis, Corchorus depressus, Lycium shawii, Salvia aegyptiaca and Zygophyllum qatarense. Species such as Capparis spinosa, Ephedra foliata and Ochradenus buccatus are locally abundant and the latter two can be very conspicuous in some of the protected rodat. Less common is the scandent shrub Cocculus pendulus, but in certain places (e.g. Al-Karrarah and Al-Wabrah) it has been observed climbing over Ziziphus trees. After heavy rain robat areas are often flooded, but just a few weeks later a luxuriant covering of ephemeral is likely to occur. Typical species include Aizoon canariense, Althea ludwigii, Anastatica hierochuntica, Asteriscus pygmaeus, Astragalus tribuloides, Emex spinosus, Eragrostis ciliaris, Malva parvifolia, Phalaris paradoxa, Plantago amplexicaulis, Schismus barbatus, Spergula fallax, Spergularia bocconi, Trachynia distachya and Trigonella stellata. Ephemeral are also often common in the shadow of Ziziphus trees. These trees can accumulate large mounds of water-borne and wind-borne sediment, which can further protect stands of ephemerals.
Egyptian-Arabian Acacia tortilis Desert Scrubland
Vegetation dominated by Acacia tortilis is widespread in Qatar, for example, particularly in shallow depressions. It is also found scattered on the hozoom, but absent from the sabkhas and dune fields. In the northern and central areas Zygophyllum quatarense is also prominent while in southern areas the grass Panicum turgidum is the second most prominent species. Depending on location other associated species include Astragalus tribuloides, Atractylis carduus, Convolvulus deserti, Corchorus depressus, Eleusine compressa, Eragrostis ciliaris, Fagonia bruguiera, Francoeria crispa, Glossonema edule, Heliotropium bacciferum, Herniaria hemistemon, Lotononis platycarpa, Lycium shawii, Monsonia heliotropioides, Polycarpaea repens and Stipa capensis.
Egyptian-Arabian Zygophyllum qatarense Desert Shrubland
Zygophyllum qatarense is one of the most common plant species in its namesake area of Qatar and vegetation dominated by this species is widespread in this area. It is particularly abundant in the shallow depressions on the rocky plateau of southern Qatar, where the habitat is subject to both wind and water erosion. Here the most common associates are Acacia tortilis, Aizoon canariense, Anastatica hierochuntia, Aristida abnormis, Corchorus depressus, Euphorbia granulata, Francoeuria crispa, Glossonema edule, Helianthemum lippii, Heriaria hemistemon, Launaea capitata, Scrophularia deserti, Stipa capensis, Tribulus terrestris and Trigonella stellata. Zygophyllum qatarense is extremely tolerant of draught and high temperates, which is helped by seasonally changes in the morphology, anatomy and physiology of its leaves. It is host to two striking parasitic plants - Cistanche tubulosa (desert broomrape) of the Orobanchiaceae family and Cynomorium coccineum of the Cynomoriaceae family. The latter is or was common on the island of Malta where it is know as Maltese mushroom despite the fact that it is a flowering plant and not a fungus.
Egyptian-Arabian Cornulaca monacantha Dwarf Shrubland
Deep sandy soils mainly deposited by wind provide the main habitat for vegetation dominated by Cornulaca monacantha. The main areas include the sand accumulations west of Umm Bab and in the long runnels adjacent to the Emirates’ Road. In the Umm Bab area the main associates include Maltkiopsis ciliata, Panicum turgidum, Stipagrostis plumosa and Zygophyllum qatarense, but in the latter area Leptadenia pyrotechnica becomes one of the main associates.
Egyptian-Arabian Desert Dwarf Shrubland on Gypsum
In soft chalky areas fairly rich in gypsum such as parts Jebel Ataqa and Jebel Eqma (Sinai) the vegetation is characterized by sparsely often widely spaced dwarf shrubs dominated by Salsola tetrandra. In other areas, such in the Judean Desert, these chalky habitats are dominated by other dwarf shrubs, such as Chenolea arabica, Reamuria hirtella, Suaeda asphaltica, or the endemic Hammada negevensis (Chenopodiaceae). Other endemic or near endemic species associated with this habitat include Centaurea negevensis (Asterceae), Fagonia sinaica (Zygophyllaceae), Moricandia sinaica (Brassicaceae) and Nasturtiopsis arabica (Brassicaceae).
Egyptian-Arabian Wadi Vegetation
Wadis are ephemeral watercourses carrying water only for short periods and subject to sporadic flooding. Their vegetation varies from place to place and often includes plants of differing water requirements living side by side. In addition the vegetation also tends to vary with the mechanical constitution of the substratum, which changes gradually from the heads to the mouths of wadis. Nevertheless, Retama raetum and various Tamarix species particularly T. aphylla and T. nilotica are often characteristic of this habitat. Other local dominants may include Atriplex halimus, Atriplex leucoclada, Ephedra alalta, Salsola tetrandra, Thymelaea hirsuta, Zilla spinosa and Zygophyllum coccineum. Among endemic or near endemic species associated with this habitat are Artemisia judaica (Asteraceae), Kickxia floribunda and Verbascum fruticulosum (Scrophulariaceae) and Polygonum palaestinum (Polygonaceae). In the shallow wadis of the South Galâla plateau Artemisia herba-alba is one of the main species while among other associates is the local endemic Colchicum guessfeldtianum (Colchicaceae).
Egyptian-Arabian Francoeuria crispa Vegetation
Vegetation dominated by the aromatic composite Francoeuria crispa is widespread in Qatar particularly in the northern and central areas. It has a liking for fine-textured sediments in shallow depressions. Scattered individuals of Acacia tortilis, A. ehrenbergiana and Lycium shawii may be present in some stands, but the main associates are Anastatica hierochuntia, Astragalus corrugatus, A. tribuloides, Atractylis carduus, Cymbopogon parkeri, Fagonia bruguieri, Filago sparthulata, Launaea nudicaulis, Pulicaria undulata and the endemic Sclerocephalus arabicus (Illecebraceae).
Egyptian-Arabian Wormwood Steppes
Throughout much of the Middle East, Artemisia (wormwood) is often the most abundant genus, especially in steppe or semi-desert regions where annual rainfall may reach 250 mm. Dwarf shrublands dominated by this genus are found in parts of the Egypt, Sinai, Negev, Edom and Judean deserts. Here the most prominent species is Artemisia herba-alba while other important species are Asphodelus microcarpus, Hammada scoparia, Noaea mucronata, Pyrethrum santolinoides and Salvia lanigera. In fact, Hammada scoparia becomes a dominant species in its own right in certain areas such as parts of the Negev. Associated endemic or near endemic species are Ammocloa palaestina (Poaceae), Anabasis syriaca (Chenopodiaceae), Centaurea damascena, Filago palaestina, Picris damascena, Scorzonera judaica (Asteraceae), Crataegus sinaica (Rosaceae), Globularia arabica (Globulariaceae), Lappula sinaica (Boraginaceae), Nepeta septemcrenata, Origanum sinaicum, Phlomis aurea, Thymus decussatus (Lamiaceae), Poa sinaica (Poaceae), Pterocephalus arabicus (Dipsacaceae), Rheum palaestina (Polygonaceae) and Verbascum damascenum (Scrophulariaceae).
Egyptian-Arabian Cymbopogon parkeri Desert Grassland
In northern parts of Qatar particularly in depressions (robat) the aromatic, tussock grass Cymbopogon parkeri is the dominant plant. In the dry season peripheral parts of tussocks die-off possibly to reduce the overall area for transpiration during this period. After the onset of the rainy season the grass become reinvigorated with new tillers and leaves. Often interspersed between the tussocks are various empemerals such as Aizoon canariense, Anastatica hierochuntica, Ifloga spicata, Plantago amplexicaule, Schismus barbatus, Stipa capensis, Trigonella stellata and Zygophyllum simplex. Trees in these grasslands are few and far between but may include scattered individuals of Acacia tortilis, Lycium shawii or Ziziphus nummularia.
Egyptian-Arabian Panicum turgidum Desert Grassland
Vegetation dominated by Panicum turgidum can be found, for example, in southern parts of the Qatar peninsula where it occurs either on robat or in the sandy troughs of the Dukhan-Umm Bab ridge. In the former, scattered trees of Acacia tortilis are also present together with perennials like Aera javonica, Chrysopogon aucheri, Eremopogon foveolatus, Hammada elegans, Lasiurus hirsutus, Lycium shawii, Neurada procumbens, Polycarpaea repens, Rhanterium epapposum and Stipagrostis plumosa. On the Dukhan-Umm Bab ridge trees are absent but common associates include Cornulaca monacantha, Cyperus conglomeratus, Fagonia ovalifolia, Maltkiopsis ciliata, Monsonia heliotropioides, Polycarpaea repens and Stipogrostis plumosa. Unfortunately, in certain areas Panicum turgidum tends to be overgrazed and in such areas the less palatable Pennisetum divisum has become a common feature.
Egyptian-Arabian Coastal Saltmarsh (Persian Gulf)
In the area around Kuwait Bay the saltmarshes show distinct zonation and can be divided into six vegetation zones. Moving from the lower shore landward these include a Halocnemum strobilaceum-Juncus arabicus zone, a Halocnemum strobilaceum-Suaeda vermiculata zone, a Nitraria retusa-Zygophyllum qatarense zone, a Zygophyllum qatarense-Haloxylon salicornicum zone, a Nitraria retusa zone and a Tamarix aucherana zone.
Halocnemum strobilaceum-Juncus arabicus (syn. Juncus rigidus) vegetation zone
Confined to the lower marshes, and inundated by seawater about 500 times, this zone largely comprises scattered low shrubs. The few associated species include Aeluropus lagopoides and Launaea mucronata.
Halocnemum strobilaceum-Suaeda vermiculata vegetation zone
Much wider and more luxuriant than the previous zone, the vegetation comprises a range of halophytic perennials and annuals together with number of nonhalophytic annuals. The few associated species include Bienertia cycloptera, Mesembryanthemum nodiflorium, Salicornia herbacea, Salsola imbricate, Salsola bryosma, Seidlitzia rosmarinus and Suaeda aegyptiaca.
Nitraria retusa-Zygophyllum qatarense vegetation zone
This zone is much wider than previous zones and may comprise more than one parallel belt. Among the associated species are Cornulaca monacantha, Cressa cretica, Schismus barbatus and Oligomeris linifolia.
Zygophyllum qatarense-Haloxylon salicornicum vegetation zone
This zone occurs on the higher parts of coastal flats where saltmarsh merges into desert vegetation, and represents a transition zone supporting a number of nonhalophytes on its landward borders. The many associated species include Aaronsohnia factorovskyi, Aegilops kotschyi, Anthemis deserti, Arnebia decumbens, Asphodelus tenuifolia, Astragalus annularis, Astragalus hauarensis, Atractylis carduus, Bassia muricata, Brassica tournefortii, Bupleurum semicompositum, Carduus pycnocephalus, Cistanche tubulosa, Citrullus colocynthis, Convolvulus oxyphyllus, Cressa cretica, Cutandia memphitica, Cyperus conglomeratus, Emex spinosa, Erodium laciniatum, Euphorbia densa, Euphorbia granulata, Fagonia bruguieri, Filago pyramidata, Frankenia pulverulenta, Gymnarrhena micrantha, Gypsophila capillaries, Helianthemum lippi, Helotrophium bacciferum, Hippocrepis aneolata, Ifoga spicata, Koelpinia linearis, Launaea capitata, Launaea mucronata, Loeflingia hispanica, Lotus halophilus, Lycium shawii, Medicago laciniata, Moltkiopsis ciliata, Natraria retusa, Neurada procumbens, Panicum turgidum, Picris babylonica. Plantago ciliata, Plantago coronopus, Plantago ovata, Rhanterium epapposum, Rostraria pumila, Salsola cyclophylla, Scabiosa oliviera, Schismus barbatus, Senecio glaucus, Spergularia diandra, Trachynia distachya and Traganum nudatum, Trigonella stellata together with various Arabian endemics or near endemics like Astragalus spinosus, Paronychia arabica, Reseda arabica, Silene arabica, Schisma arabica and Sporbolus arabicus.
Nitraria retusa vegetation zone
This extensive zone can extent for up to 1300 m on the lower saline edge of the sabkha flat where the water table is close to the soil surface. Nitraria retusa is a mono-dominant in places but mainly represented by stunted, depauperate shrubs. However, the zone is heavily impacted by camel grazing. The few associated species include Tamarix aucheriana.
Tamarix aucherana vegetation zone
This zone extends further inland for up to 1700 m on edge of the sabkha flat. Tamarix aucheriana is often the only dominant species but often associated with Cress cretica. The few other species include Aeluropus lagopoides and Convolvulus oxyphyllus.
Egyptian-Arabian Coastal Saltmarsh (Red Sea)
Salt marsh in the Red Sea represents a mixture of mangove and more typical saltmarsh vegetation. Several zones or communities have been recognised. Moving landward these comprise: Avicennia marina mangrove fringe, Halocnemon strobilaceum zone, Arthrocnemon glaucum zone, Halopeplis perfoliata zone, Limonium pruinosum zone, Limonium axillare zone, Aeluropus zone, Sporobolus spicatus zone, Halopyrum mucronatum zone, Zygophyllum album zone, Nitraria retusa zone, Suaeda monoica zone and Tamarix mannifera zone. However, not all of these zones may be present and none of them with the possible exception of the Zygophyllum album zone extend for the entire length of the Red Sea.
Avicennia marina mangrove fringe
Mangrove, often comprising pure stands of Avicennia marina, fringes much of the Red Sea coast, but in places it forms mixed stands with Rhizophora mucronata.
Halocnemon strobilaceum saltmarsh zone
Salt marsh dominated by Halocnemon strobilaceum mainly forms towards in the Gulf of Suex end of the Red Sea but not further south. Associated species include Alhagia maurorum, Arthrocnemon glaucum, Salsola villosa, Zygophyllum album and Zygophyllum simplex.
Arthrocnemon glaucum saltmarshzone
This community extends throughout much of the Red Sea but in scattered patches. Associated species in the southern regions include Halopeplis perfoliata and Limonium axillare but these are replaced by Halocnemon strobilaceum in the northern parts.
Halopeplis perfoliata saltmarsh zone
This zone is only found in small scattered patches. Arthrocnemon glaucum and Zygophyllum album are the main associates. Others include Launaea cassiniana and Zygophyllum simplex.
Limonium pruinosum saltmarsh zone
This zone is mainly confined to the area around the Gulf of Suezbut not further south. Associated species include Nitraria retusa, Sevada schimperi, Suaeda calcarata and Zygophyllum album.
Limonium axillare saltmarsh zone
In this zone Limonium axillare makes up most of the sparse vegetation cover. The few other associates include Salsola baryosma, Salsola vermiculata and Sporobolus spicatus.
Aeluropus saltmarsh zone
This zone is dominated by the morphologically and ecologically similar species Aeluropus brevifolius and Aeluropus lagopoides. These grasses usually adopt a creeing growth form. Associated species include Cyperus conglomeratus, Sporobolus spicatus and Zygophyllum album. Other more ephemeral species include Aristida meccana, Astragalus eremophilus, Crotalaria microphylla, Lotononis platycarpa and Polycarpaea spicata.
Sporobolus spicatus saltmarsh zone
This saltmarsh grassland is mainly confined to southern areas. Associates include Cyperus conglomeratus, Panicum turgidum, Salsola baryosma and Sevada schimperi.
Halopyrum mucronatum saltmarsh zone
This saltmarsh grass zone is confined to a limited area within the Red Sea but has a extensive distribution on maritime sands. Among the associates are Heliotropium pterocarpum and Indigofera argentea.
Zygophyllum album saltmarsh zone
This forms the only ubiquitous zone within the Red Sea but the associated species are considerably varied. Amongest these are Launaea capitata, Monsonia nivea, Retama raetam and Tamarix mannifera.
Nitraria retusa saltmarsh zone
This salt tolerant shrub is mainly confined to the northern parts of the Red Sea. It tend to contribute to most of the cover within this zone but other species such as Limonium pruinosum and Zygophyllum album may be present.
Suaeda monoica saltmarsh zone
This species seems to a feature of dryer saltmarsh zones and can extent beyond the limits of salmarsh to the fringes of the coastal desert plain. The community is relatively species-rich supporting over 50 species. Examples include Halopeplis perfoliata and Heliotropium undulatum.
Tamarix mannifera saltmarsh zone
Tamarix mannifera is one of the most common shrubs in the Red Sea coastal zone. It can grow in a variety of habitats in various forms. In some of the dryer saltmarsh zones it can form thickets and may form a three layered profile. Associated trees and shrubs include Acacia raddiana, Calotropis procera, Leptadenia pyrotechnica, Retama raetam and Tamarix aphylla. However the ground layer is usually fairly sparse but Juncus arabicus may form extensive mats.
References
Abd El-Ghani, M. M. 2000. Vegetation composition of Egyptian inland salmarshes. Botanical Bulletin of Academia Sinica, 41: 305-314.
Al-Eisawi, D. 1996. Vegetation of Jordan. UNESCO - Cairo Office.
Al-Nafie, A. H. 2008. Phytogeography of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 15: 159-176.
Ayyad, M. A., Fakhry, A. M. & Moustafa, A. A. 2000. Plant biodiversity in the Saint Catherine area of the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. Biodiversity and Conservation, 9: 265-281.
Ayyad, M. A. & Ghabbour, S. I. 1986. Egypt and Sudan. In: Ecosystems of the World 12B - Hot Deserts and Arid Shrubland, B. Eds. M. Evenari, I. Noy-Meir and D. W. Goodall. Elsevier.
Batanouny, K. H. 1981. Ecology and Flora of Qatar. University of Qatar.
Boulos, L. 1985. The arid eastern and south-eastern Mediterranean region. In: Plant Conservation in the Mediterranean. Ed. C. Gómez-Campo. Dr W. Junk Publishers.
Collenette, S. 1998. A checklist of botanical species in Saudi Arabia. International Asclepaid Society.
Danin, A. 1978. Plant species diversity and ecological districts of the Sinai Desert. Vegetatio, 36 (2): 83-93.
Davis, P. H. 1953. The vegetation of the deserts near Cairo. Journal of Ecology, 41: 157-173.
El-Sayed, E. M., Gamel, El-Din & Adel, A. Ramadan. 2002. A contribution to the flora of Sinai. Part 2. A plant species from pre-conservation collections in South Sinai, Egypt. Journal of Practical Ecology and Conservation, 5: 50- 64.
El-Sheikh, M. A. E. & Abbadi, G. A. 2004. Biodiversity of plant communities in Jal Az-Zor National Park, Kuwait. Kuwait Journal of Science and Engineering, 31: 77-105.
Ghazanfar, S. A. & Fisher, M. 1998. Vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Ghazanfar, S. A. 2006. Saline and alkaline vegetation of NE Africa and the Arabian peninsula: an overview. In: Biosaline Agriculture and Salinity Tolerance in Plants. Eds. M. Öztürk, Y. Waisel, M. A. Khan & G. Görk. Birkhäuser Verlag, Switzerland.
Halwagy, R.1986. On the ecology and vegetation of Kuwait. In: Contributions to the Vegetation of Southwest Asia. Ed. H. Kürschner. Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag.
Hassan, L. M. 2002. Plant life in the Digla Conserved Area, hyperarid desert, Egypt. Online Journal of Biological Sciences, 2: 533-537.
Hegazy, A. K., El-Demerdash, M. A. & Hosni, H. A. 1998. Vegetation, species diversity and floristic relations along an altitudinal gradient in southwest Saudi Arabia. Journal of Arid Environments, 38: 3-18.
Kassas, M. & Imam, M. 1959. Habitat and plant communities in the Egyptian Desert. Journal of Ecology, 47: 289-310.
Kassas, M. & Zahran, M. A. 1967. On the Ecology of the Red Sea Littoral Salt Marsh, Egypt. Ecological Monographs, 87: 297-315.
Kürschner, H.1986. A physiognomical-ecological classification of the vegetation of southern Jordan. In: Contributions to the Vegetation of Southwest Asia. Ed. H. Kürschner. Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag.
Mashaly, I. A. 2001. Contribution to the ecology of the deltaic Mediterranean coast, Egypt. Online Journal of Biological Sciences 1: 682-635.
Mashaly, I. A. 2002. Ecological studies on Zygophyllum aegyptium in the deltaic Mediterranean coast of Egypt. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 5: 152-160.
McGinnies, W. G. et al. (eds). 1970. Deserts of the World. The University of Arizona Press.
Miller, A. G. & Nyberg, J. A. 1991. Patterns of endemism in Arabia. Flora et Vegetatio Mundi, 9: 263-279.
Mohamad, A. E., El-Sheikh, Rafik M. El-Ghareeb e Anna Testi. 2006. Ecology of plant communities in coastal salt marshes habitat in Kuwait. Rend. Fis. Acc. Lincei, 17: 311-331.
Rahman, A. A. ABD EL. 1986. The deserts of the Arabian Peninsula. In: Ecosystems of the World 12B - Hot Deserts and Arid Shrubland, B. Eds. M. Evenari, I. Noy-Meir and D. W. Goodall. Elsevier.
Shaltout, K. H., Sheded, M. G., El-Kady, H. F. & Al-Sodany, Y. M. 2003. Phytosociology and size structure of Nitraria retusa along the Egyptian Red Sea coast. Journal of Arid Environments, 53: 331-345.
Springuel, I., Sheded, M. & Murphy, K. J. 1997. The plant biodiversity of the Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve (Egypt): impact of Lake Nasser on a desert wadi ecosystem. Biodiversity and Conservation, 6: 1259 -1275.
Tackholm, V. 1956. Students’ Flora of Egypt. Anglo-Egyptian Bookshop.
Ullrich, H. & Frey, W.1986. A vegetational transect through Central Saudi Arabia. In: Contributions to the Vegetation of Southwest Asia. Ed. H. Kürschner. Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag.
Vesey-Fitzgerald, D. F. 1957. Vegetation of the Red Sea coast north of Jedda, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Ecology, 45: 547-562.
Vesey-Fitzgerald, D. F. 1957. The vegetation of central and eastern Arabia. Journal of Ecology, 45: 779-798.
White, F. 1983. The Vegetation of Africa. UNESCO.
Zahran, M. A. 1977. Africa A - wet formations of the African Red Sea coast. In: Ecosystems of the World 1 - Wet Coastal Ecosystems. Ed. V. J. Chapman. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company.
Zahran, M. A., El-Demerdash, M. A. & Mashaly, L. A. 1990. Vegetation types of the deltaic Mediterranean coast of Egypt and their environment. Journal of Vegetation Science, 1: 305-310.
Zohary, M. 1962. Plant Life of Palestine. The Ronald Press Company, New York.
Zohary, M. 1973. Geobotanical Foundations of the Middle East. Volumes 1 & 2. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart & Swets & Zeitlinger, Amsterdam.
Zohary, M., Heyn, C. C. & Heller, D. 1980. Conspectus Florae Orientalis. The Israel Academy of Science and Humanities. Jerusalem.