Euxine Maquis

This association is prevalent on coastal limestone up to an altitude of about 200 m, and can be found, for example, in the Euxine territories of Asükü, Denizbükü, Gemiciler, Manastir, Yakaören, Köklüce and Canlar. Characteristic species include Laurus nobilis, Phillyrea latifolia and Pinus brutia. It also includes trees such as Arbutus unedo, Carpinus betulus, Cornus sanguinea, while additional common shrubs are Cistus creticus and Spartium junceum. However, it differs from more typical Mediterranean 'marquis' by the presence of a number of Euxine species. These include several endemic or near endemic taxa such as Asperula pestalozzae (Rubiaceae), Daphne pontica (Thymelaeaceae), Dorycnium graecum (Fabaceae), Lonicera caucasica subsp. orientalis (Caprifoliaceae) and Salvia forskahlei (Lamiaceae). The presence of maquis in this zone has been used as evidence to suggest that it is a relict area of the Mediterranean but because of its combination of Mediterranean and Euxine elements it is sometimes referred to as pseudomaquis.

Colchic Mixed Broad-Leaved Forest

In the western Caucasian (Colchic) zone up to an altitude of about 600 m humid, thermophilous mixed forest occurs dominated by Castanea sative, Fagus orientalis, Quercus hartwissiana, Zelkova carpinifolia and the Caucasian endemic Carpinus caucasica (Betulaceae). The under story is typically Colchic with species such as Laurocerasus officinalis, Rhododendron ponticum and the endemic Ruscus colchicus (Ruscaceae). Typical lianas are Hedera helix, Vitis sylvestris and the endemic or near endemic Dioscorea caucasica (Dioscoreaceae) and Hedera colchica (Araliaceae).

Euxine-Colchic Sweet Chestnut Forest

Deciduous forests dominated by Castanea sativa grow luxuriantly on marls, chalky stone and volcanic sandstone.  They are mainly confined to an altitudinal range of between 200 – 700 m and mainly occur on northern slopes. Other characteristic species include Achillea biserrata, Smilax excelsa and the endemic Hedera colchica (Araliaceae). The rich shrub layer can have coverage of up to 60% and typically includes Laurocerasus officinalis, Rhododendron luteum, Vaccinium arctostaphylos and the endemic Ilex colchica (Aquifoliaceae). These forests are widespread and can be found, for example, in the Hamza Quarter of the Bozkurt District and in the Bahce and Sen Quarters. Other associated endemic taxa include Aristolochia pontica (Aristolochiaceae), Digitalis ferruginea subsp. ferruginea (Scrophulariaceae) and Trachystemon orientalis (Boraginaceae).

Euxine-Colchic Beech Forest

Deciduous forests dominated by Fagus orientalis are usually found at altitudes above the sweet chestnut Castanea sativa forests, but range from about 400 – 1360 m. Some of the best examples in the Euxine zone are in the Buzkurt Yilmaz District and in the Isirganhk Hills. They have a rich shrub layer that typically has a high degree of coverage and characterized by species such as Vaccinium arctostaphylos and the endemic Ilex colchica (Aquifoliaceae). Other associated endemic or near endemic species includes Asperula involucrata (Rubiaceae), Rubus discolor (Roseaceae) and the fern Dryopteris caucasica (Dryopteridaceae). The latter tends to be confined to the more humid, dark, shadowy forests.

Euxine-Colchic Oak-Hornbeam Forest

Dominated by the Carpinus betula and the Caucasian endemic Quercus iberica (Fagaceae), these deciduous forests are mainly found on sandstone on west and southern slopes. In the Euxine zone they occur, for example, in the region between Kastamonu, Inebolu and Cide. Here other characteristic trees include Acer campestris and Sorbus umbellata var. cretica. The shrub layer includes Daphne pontica and Phyracantha coccinea, while Scutellaria velenonvskyi is characteristic of the herb layer. Associated endemic species include Dianthus carmelitarum (Caryophyllaceae) and Rubus canescens (Rosaceae). On the dryer, lower slopes of the western Caucasian (Colchic) zone the dominant trees are Carpinus orientalis and the Caucasian endemics Carpinus caucasica (Betulaceae) and Quercus iberica (Fagaceae).

Euxine-Colchic Fir Forest

Forests dominated by the endemic fir tree Abies nordmanniana subsp. bornmuelleriana (Pinaceae) form a belt roughly between altitudes of 1300-1800 m in areas such as the Göynük and Ilgaz mountains. The only other common tree is Pinus sylvestris, while common shrub layer species include Phyracantha coccinea, Rubus hirtus and Vaccinium arctostaphylos. Typical herb layer species are Cirsium hypoleucum, Festuca heterphylla, Galium odoratum and Sanicula europaea. The associated endemic taxa include Dorycnium graecum (Fabaceae) and Hypericum bithynicum (Hypericaceae).

Euxine-Colchic Pinus nigra Forest

These forests are widespread with extensive stands on the southern and eastern slopes of the Kunduz Mountains. The dominant tree is Pinus nigra subsp. pallasiana and can reach heights of 15 m. The shrub layer ranges in height from 0.5 to 2 m with cover varying from 10-70%. Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. oxycedrus is often the dominant shrub together with Carpinus orientalis and Quercus cerris var. cerris. Dominant in the herb layer are Dactylis glomerata subsp. hispanica, Polygala pruinosa and the two endemic taxa Dorycnium graecum and D. pentaphyllum subsp. antatolica (Fabaceae). Other endemic or near endemic taxa include Polygala anatolica (Polygalaceae) and Tragopagon aureus (Asteraceae).

Euxine-Colchic Pinus sylvesteris Forest

Forests dominated by Pinus sylvestris are widespread between about 1000-1400 m and like Pinus nigra forest can be found, for example, on the southern and eastern slopes of the Kunduz Mountains. The shrub layer is well developed reaching heights of one metre with coverage of up to 35%. Dominant species include Pyracantha coccinea, Rubus hirtus and the near endemic Daphne pontica (Thymelaeaceae). Common species in the herb layer are Euphorbia amygdaloides, Galium rotundifolium, Fragaria vesca, Primula vulgaris and Sanicula europaea. Among the associated endemic or near endemic taxa are Cirsium pseudopersonata subsp. pseudopersonata (Asteraceae) and Luzula pseudosudetica (Juncaceae).

Colchic Subalpine Oak and Birch Elfin Forest

At sub alpine altitudes (2100-2400 m) of the western Caucasian (Colchic) zone, dwarf woodlands of oak and birch occur. The main species are Quercus pontica and Caucasian endemic birches Betula medwedewii and B. megrelica (Betulaceae). Other species include various endemic Tertiary relicts like Corylus colchica (Corylaceae), Epigaea gaultherioides (Ericaceae), Rhododendron smirnowii and R. ungernii (Ericaceae).

Colchic Alpine and Subalpine Grassland and Thicket

Between 2100-3000 m in the western Caucasian (Colchic) zone are various grassland and thicket communities. Ranging from about 2100 to 2750 m are grasslands characterized by Agrostis lazica, Festuca djimilensis, Nardus stricta and the Caucasian endemic forb Geranium gymnocaulon (Geraniaceae). On limestone at these altitudes, the sub-alpine meadows include Calamagrostis arundinaceae, Carex pontica and the Caucasian generic endemic Woronowia speciosa (Rosaceae). The sub-alpine thickets at these altitudes are typically dominated by the Caucasian endemic Rhododendron caucasicum (Ericaceae). At higher elevations (2750-2900 m) Festuca supina becomes one of the main grass species and can be found in association with Kobresia schoenoides and mats of Cerastium cerastoides, Potentilla crantzii and Ranunculus svaneticus. At even high altitudes (2900-3700 m) in the so-called subnival zone there are mainly open plant communities with Minuartia trautvetteriana and the Caucasian endemics Cerastium polymorphum (Caryophyllaceae) and Saxifraga scleropoda (Saxifragaceae).

Euxine Dunes

Dune vegetation in the Euxinian zone of the Black Sea is varied and complex and includes many endemic species. The summaries below are based on studies carried out on the coasts of Bulgaria and Turkey. 

Euxine Dunes (Bulgarian Coast)

The Euxinian province of the western (Bulgarian) Black Sea has been divided into two biogeographic zones. These have been simply described as the southern coastline and northern coastline separated by the headland of Cape Emine. The study site, Kamchiiski Sands, which lies in the southern zone, can be divided seven dune formations.

Strandline or Pioneer Zone
The pioneer zone is typically characterised by the succulent species Salsola ruthenica and the Euxine endemic Cakile maritima subsp. euxina. Other characteristic taxa may include Crambe maritima, Eryngium maritimum, Euphorbia peplis, Glaucium flavum, Polygonum maritimum and Xanthium italicum.  The association is found throughout much of the Black Sea as well as around the Sea of Marmara and the northeastern part of the Aegean Sea.

Embryonic Dune Vegetation
The main dune former here is the Pontic species Leymus racemosus subsp. sabulosus. Among associated species Eryngium maritimum and Xanthium strumarium subsp. italicum are very common, Lactuca tatarica and Salsola ruthenica are common, but Ammophila arenaria, Elymus farctus and Crambe maritima are of limited presence. However, Xanthium strumarium is an alien, invasive species introduced from America. Other species that may be encountered include Alyssum hirsutum subsp. caespitosum, Chondrilla juncea, Corispermum nitidum, Crepis foetida subsp. foetida, Euphorbia peplis, Euphorbia paralias, Galilea mucronata, Leontodon crispus, Pancratium maritimum, Plantago scabra, Polygonum maritimum, Sonchus arvensis subsp. uliginosus, and the Pontic elements Medicago falcata subsp. tenderiensis and Jurinea albicaulis subsp. kilaea. Other species such as the Balkan near endemic Silene thymifolia and the Pontic species Centaurea arenaria subsp. borysthenica, are now very rare.  This association is distributed along the entire Bulgarian coastline. A similar association is distributed along the most southerly parts of the western Black Sea coast (Turkey), the northern Sea of Marmara coast, and the northernmost shoreline of the Aegean Sea.

Shifting Dune Vegetation
The main species here are Ammophila arenaria subsp. arundinacea and the pontic species Medicago falcata subsp. tenderiensis. Other typical species include Centaurea arenaria, Elymus farctus, Eryngium maritimum, Leymus racemosus subsp. sabulosus, Lactuca tatarica and Silene thymifolia. The association has a western-pontic character, defined by the common occurrence of the Pontic taxa Centaurea arenaria subsp. borysthenica and the Balkan near endemic Silene thymifolia. Other less common taxa include Alyssum minutum, Alyssum hirsutum subsp. caespitosum, Chondrilla juncea, Convolvulus persicus, Crambe maritima, Erysimum diffusum, Euphorbia seguierana, Festuca arenicola, Glaucium flavum, Linaria genistifolia, Marrubium peregrinum, Scabiosa argentea, Secale sylvestre, Silene conica subsp. conomaritima, Stachys atherocalyx, Stachys maritima, Xanthoria parietina and the Balkan endemics Alyssum borzaeanum, Astragalus onobrychis subsp. scorpili and Verbascum purpureum. However, species composition appears to have been altered by human activities and this may explain the absence of certain obligate psammophytes such as Euphorbia peplis, Medicago marina and Stachys maritima.

Fixed Dune Vegetation
Fixed dune vegetation on the Bulgarian coast can be divided into at least three associations – one characterised by Artemisia campestris and the east Balkan-Anatolian endemic Aurinia uechtritziana, one characterised by Carex ligerica and Stachys atherocalyx, and the third by Ephedra distacha and the Balkan near endemic Alyssum borzaeanum.

Artemisia campestris - Aurinia uechtritziana Association
In Bulgaria this association occurs north of Kamchia River mouth, and in fact, the presence of the East Balkan endemics Verbascum purpurem and Silene thymifolia, and pontic elements such as Cionura erecta, Jurinea albicaulis subsp. kilaea and Silene euxina, makes this association endemic to the western Black Sea coast. Strong winds make the dune ridges much drier and more unstable but providing habitat for annual species such as Coryspermum nitidum, Secale sylvestre, as well as the Balkan endemic Astragalus onobrychis subsp. scorpili. Species such Arenaria serpilifolia, Cladonia foliacea, Poa bulbosa and Syntrichia ruralis typify the northern, shady, humid dune slopes, but where there is some loose sand, on steep sunny slopes and in some flatter areas, species such as Cionura erecta, Festuca vaginata, Galilea mucronata, Peucedanum arenarium and Silene euxina predominate. Other taxa include Alyssum hirsutum subsp. caespitosum, Alyssum minutum, Amorpha fruticosa, Anchusa leptophylla, Carex ligerica, Cerastium semidecandrum, Chondrilla juncea, Chrysopogon gryllus, Echium vulgare, Elymus pycnanthus, Erianthus ravennae, Erysimum diffusum, Festuca vaginata, Galilea mucronata, Jasione heldreichii, Kochia laniflora, Linaria genistifolia subsp. genistifolia, Medicago falcata subsp. tenderiensis, Melilotus alba, Morus alba, Orobanche arenaria, Osyris alba, Pancratium maritimum, Papaver hybridum, Peucedanum arenarium, Phleum graecum, Rumex tenuifolis, Scabiosa argentea, Silene euxina, Teucrium polium subsp. vincentinum, Trachomytum venetum, Vitis vinifera, Xanthium italicum and Xanthoria parietina.

Carex ligerica - Stachys atherocalyx Association
This association occurs in different dune systems along the entire Bulgarian coast but most examples are north of Kamchiiski dunes. Carex ligerica is often the dominant species especially in the flatter areas where sand is more compacted and humid. Stachys atherocalyx is also frequently encountered with a range extending from the Balkan Peninsula to the Ukrainian and Crimean Black Sea coast. Other common species are Centaurea arenaria subsp. borysthenica, Linaria genistifolia subsp. genistifolia, Chondrilla juncea and Jasione heldreichii. Less common taxa include Allium guttatum, Althaea officinalis, Alyssum minutum, Ammophila arenaria, Anchusa leptophylla, Artemisia campestris, Astragalus onobrychis subsp. scorpili, Aurinia uechtritziana, Clematis vitalba, Conyza canadensis, Crepis foetida subsp. foetida, Dianthus moesiacus subsp. moesiacus, Eryngium maritimum, Erysimum diffusum, Festuca vaginata, Holoschoenus vulgaris, Leymus racemosus, Linaria genistifolia, Linum tauricum subsp. bulgaricum, Medicago falcata subsp. tenderiensis, Peucedanum arenarium, Poa pratensis, Silene conica subsp. conomaritima, Teucrium polium subsp. vincentinum, Trifolium arvense, Verbascum purpureum and Verbena officinalis.

Ephedra distacha - Alyssum borzaeanum Association
This association tends to occur on the inner parts of the fixed dunes and has a very distinctive species composition. The presence of Balkan endemic Verbascum purpureum and the xerothermic species Syntrichia ruralis emphasizes this distinctiveness. However, the association also includes signs of ruderalisation with various anthropophytes and ruderals such as Echium vulgare, Marrubium peregrinum and Prunus spinosa. Other taxa include Ammophila arenaria, Aristolochia clematitis, Astragalus onobrychis subsp. scorpili, Centaurea arenaria, Cynanchum acutum, Eryngium campestre, Erysimum diffusum, Euphorbia seguierana, Festuca vaginata, Medicago falcata subsp. tenderiensis, Melica ciliata, Scabiosa argentea, Silene thymifolia, Syntrichia ruralis and Xanthoria parietina.

Euxine Dunes (Igneada Coast Turkey)

The Igneada region is sutuated in the northwest Thracian part of Turkey and regarded as one of the most important plant areas in Turkey. Dune vegetation is regarded an important ecological component of the area.

Several vegetation types have been defined. These include a seaward fringe community characterised by Leymus racemosus subsp. sabulosus and Otanthus maritimus, a mid-dune community characterised by Cionura erecta and Medicago rigidula, and a hinterland meadow zone supporting a complex assemblage of species.

Leymus racemosus subsp. sabulosus - Otanthus maritimus Community
This pioneer community forms in a relative flat area with a few small hillocks just above high tide but the area is relatively unstable. Associated species include Cionura erecta, Eryngium maritimum, Hypochaeris radicata, Lolium rigidum, Maresia nana, Secale sylvestre, Silene dichotoma, Stachys annua together with the endemic species Centaurea kilaea and Silene sangaria. However there is evidence of human usage and overgrazing in places.

Cionura erecta and Medicago rigidula Community
Some distance from the sea this community forms the next zone of vegetation where more stable conditions prevail. The topography is again relatively flat with just a few small hillocks and hollows. Associated species include Cerastium pumilum, Cionura erecta, Medicago rigidula, Muscari neglectum and Teucrium polium.

Dune Meadow Zone
This inner part of the sand dune supports a complex mixture of species. It includes, for example, indicators of disturbance, such as Cynodon dactylon and Rumex pulcher and species characteristic of fine soils such as Oenanthe fistulosa and Parentucellia latifolia. The dominat species are Arenaria serpyllifolia, Leontodon tuberosus and Parentucellia latifolia, while other associated taxa are Eryngium campestre, Petrorhagia velutina, Poa bulbosa, Trifolium campestre and Vulpia ciliata.

Euxine Saltmarsh

Near the Kizilirmak River four saltmarsh zones have been identified. The first or seaward zone is dominated by monospecific stands of Carex capitellata. It extends for some 25 m and is inundated during most of the year. The second zone is dominated by mixed stands of Salicornia prostrata and Spergularia marina and extends for about 30 m. The third is dominated by monospecific stands of Artemisia santonicum and extends for about 35 m and the fourth or most landward zone by monospecific stands of Juncus littoralis extends for about 60 m. The third and fourth zones are only inundated during winter. Other species found in adjacent saltmarshes include Hordeum geniculatum and Plantago coronopus.

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